Fig. 2

Results of SEM for Model 2 (with covariates). For the purpose of clarity, only the main variables are shown. All coefficients are standardized. **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. Indirect effect of empathy on perseverance: β = 0.502, p < 0.001. Direct effects of covariates on citizenship: School 1 (β = 0.043, p = 0.416), School 2 (β = 0.011, p = 0.848), gender (β = − 0.084, p = 0.053), and age (β = − 0.023, p = 0.630). Direct effects of covariates on STEM learning perseverance: School 1 (β = 0.019, p = 0.696), School 2 (β = 0.114, p = 0.022), gender (β = 0.060, p = 0.079), and age (β = 0.092, p = 0.008)